Efectos del entrenamiento en marcos relacionales de condicionalidad sobre el responder relacional deíctico / Effects of Training in Conditional Relational Framing on the Deictic Relational Responding

Resumen Desde la Teoría de los Marcos Relacionales, la toma de perspectiva se concibe como un patrón de responder relacional arbitrariamente aplicable bajo control de claves contextuales deícticas personales, espaciales y temporales. Además, se asume necesaria la capacidad para responder relacionalmente bajo el control de claves contextuales condicionales. Sin embargo, no se ha reportado evidencia empírica que permita identificar la relación existente entre los marcos de condicionalidad y la precisión en el responder relacional deíctico. El objetivo del estudio fue analizar si el entrenamiento en marco de condicionalidad podría facilitar el desempeño sobre el responder deíctico. Participaron cuatro niños con desarrollo normalizado que fueron divididos en dos condiciones experimentales (C1 y C2). Los participantes de ambas condiciones se expusieron a un protocolo de evaluación y entrenamiento en marcos deícticos. A su vez, solo los participantes de la C2 se expusieron a una fase de evaluación y entrenamiento en marcos de condicionalidad previo al entrenamiento en marcos deícticos. Los resultados mostraron que todos los participantes exhibieron mejoras en sus ejecuciones post-test en las relaciones deícticas y que los participantes de C2 obtuvieron mejores resultados con respecto a su pre-test en los niveles de mayor complejidad deíctica tras el entrenamiento en marcos condicionales. Se discute la necesidad de protocolos de toma de perspectiva más naturalistas que posibiliten indagar en cómo se desarrollan los términos relacionales y se abstrae la función de las claves contextuales que permiten interpretar, atribuir y predecir el comportamiento de otro.

Abstract According to Relational Frame Theory, perspective taking is conceived as an arbitrarily applicable relational pattern of relational responding under the control of personal, spatial, and temporal deictic contextual cues. Furthermore, the ability to respond relationally under the control of conditional contextual cues is assumed to be necessary. However, no empirical evidence has been reported to identify the relationship between conditionality frames and accuracy in deictic relational responding. The study aimed to analyze whether training in conditionality frames could facilitate performance on deictic responding. Four children with normalized development participated and were divided into two experimental conditions (C1 and C2). Participants in both conditions were exposed to an evaluation protocol and training on deictic frames. In turn, only C2 participants were exposed to an evaluation and training phase in conditionality frames before the training in deictic frames. Results showed that all the participants exhibited improvements in their post-test performances on deictic relations and that the C2 participants performed better with respect to their pre-test on the levels of greater deictic complexity after training in conditional frames. We discuss the need for more naturalistic perspective-taking protocols that allow us to investigate how relational terms are developed and abstract the role of contextual cues that allow us to interpret, attribute, and predict another's behavior.

The effect of sub-threshold autistic traits on social avoidance and distress in high school freshmen: the role of perspective taking and an intervention study / 中华行为医学与脑科学杂志

Objective:To explore the influence of sub-threshold autistic traits on social avoidance and distress of senior high school freshmen, as well as the mediating effect of perspective taking, and to investigate the intervention effect of perspective taking intervention project on improving the ability of perspective taking and reducing social avoidance and distress behavior of high sub-threshold autistic traits individuals.Methods:A total of 1 401 subjects were investigated with the autism-spectrum quotient (AQ), interpersonal reactivity index-C (IRI-C) and social avoidance and distress (SAD) from September 1st to September 30th, 2018. According to the screening criteria of 27% statistically, totally 378 subjects were selected according to the scores of autistic spectrum quotient scale from high to low as the high sub-threshold autistic traits group. The top 32 subjects with high scores of autistic spectrum quotient scale were selected and randomly divided into intervention group and control group with 16 subjects in each group. The modified viewpoint selection group counseling program was used to conduct intervention research on 16 subjects with high sub-threshold autistic traits. SPSS 26.0 was used for common method deviation test, descriptive analysis, correlation analysis and repeated measurement variance analysis, and SPSS 26.0 PROCESS plug-in was used for intermediary effect analysis.Results:(1) The scores of sub-threshold autistic traits, perspective taking, social avoidance and distress of freshmen in senior high school were (113.26±11.35), (12.34±3.95) and (10.84±6.42) respectively. (2) Sub-threshold autistic traits, perspective taking, social avoidance and distress were significantly correlated with each other( r=-0.11-0.52, all P<0.01). (3) Sub-threshold autistic traits had a significant direct effect on social avoidance and distress, with a direct effect value of 0.28, accounting for 96.55% of the total effect.The total indirect effect of perspective taking on social avoidance and distress was significant, with the total indirect effect value of 0.01, accounting for 3.45% of the total effect. (4) In the intervention group, the perspective taking score of the post-test (15.69±3.86) was significantly higher than that of the pre-test (10.56±4.18) ( P<0.01). In the control group, there was no significant difference in the scores of perspective taking before and after the test((10.63±3.69), (11.44±3.03)) ( P>0.05). (5) In the intervention group, the scores of social avoidance and distress in the post-test (6.38±5.01) were significantly lower than that in the pre-test (15.00±6.07) ( P<0.001). In the control group, the score of social avoidance and distress in the post-test (15.81±6.33) was lower than that in the pre-test (19.00 ±5.38) ( P<0.05), but the scores of social avoidance and distress in the intervention group decreased even more. Conclusion:Perspective taking plays an mediating role between sub-threshold autistic traits and social avoidance and distress. Group counseling based on perspective taking was helpful to improve the perspective taking ability of people with high sub-threshold autistic traits and reduce social avoidance and distress behaviors.

Characteristics of perspective-taking in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and its correlation with executive function / 中华行为医学与脑科学杂志

Objective:To explore the differences between impaired perspective-taking and executive function in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder(ADHD).Methods:From January 2019 to December 2020, according to DSM-5 diagnostic criteria, thirty-two cases of ADHD children aged 6 to 16(ADHD group) and twenty-six cases of typical development children and adolescents matched with age and intelligence (TD Group) were included. The response time and accuracy rate in dilemma stage and probe stage to self-oriented, maternal perspective-taking and other perspective-taking were measured using perspective-shifting task, and the executive function was evaluated by the behavior rating inventory of executive function (BRIEF). Repeated measurement analysis of variance was used to compare the difference of response time and accuracy rate between the two groups. Pearson correlation analysis was used to explore the correlation between the perspective-taking behavior characteristics and the BRIEF total score and subscale scores of ADHD group.Results:The total score and subscale scores of BRIEF scale in ADHD group were significantly higher than those in TD group (all P<0.01). The interaction between group and task type was significant during the task dilemma stage of perspective-shifting task ( F(2, 106)=4.365, P<0.05). Simple effect analysis showed that in other-perspective-taking task, the response time of ADHD group ((2 305.48±464.27)ms) was significantly longer than that of TD group ((1 971.13±462.95)ms) and the difference was statistically significant ( t=2.870, P<0.01). Pearson correlation analysis showed that the response time of ADHD group to other perspective-taking in dilemma stage was positively correlated with working memory, organization and inhibition index in EF ( r=0.401, 0.432, 0.342, all P<0.01). Conclusion:The ability of the perspective taking is closely related to impaired executive function, which seem to share a common neuropsychological basis.

Brain Activation Related to Perspective-Taking in Adolescents: Differences from Adults

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to investigate the differences between adolescents and adults, in the perspective-taking ability, as well as the brain activation patterns during the perspective-taking situation.METHODS: We recruited healthy adolescents aged 13 years to 15 years (n = 20) and adults aged 19 years to 29 years (n = 20). All the subjects were scanned while performing the perspective-taking task, in which an emotional situation was presented in the form of statements comprising first person, as well as third person perspectives. Differences in brain activation between groups were assessed by contrasting neural activity during the tasks.RESULTS: In the between-group analysis, while performing the third-person perspective-taking task, the adolescent group showed greater neural activities in the middle frontal gyrus and precentral gyrus as compared to the adult group. Positive correlation was observed between the activity in the frontal areas (Brodmann area 6/9) and the score of scales related to perspective-taking and social cognition in the adolescent group.CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that several frontal brain areas of adolescents needs to be overactivated in order to compensate for low perspective-taking ability when they ought to take another person's point of view.

Nivel de orientación empática en los estudiantes de terapia física y rehabilitación de una universidad estatal / Level of empathic orientation in students of physical therapy and rehabilitation of a state university

Objetivo: Determinar el nivel de orientación empática en los estudiantes de Terapia Física y Rehabilitación de la Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, 2016. Materiales y métodos: Estudio de enfoque cuantitativo de tipo descriptivo-observacional, prospectivo, con diseño no experimental de corte transversal. Realizado en 134 estudiantes de Terapia Física y Rehabilitación del 2do al 5to año de carrera de la Escuela Académico Profesional de Tecnología Médica de la UNMSM; se empleó la Escala de Empatía Médica de Jefferson (EEMJ). Resultados: En general se obtuvo una puntuación media de 114.60±14.424, que corresponde a un nivel alto de orientación empática. Cualitativamente esta categoría está representada por el 85.1%. Respecto a las dimensiones, se obtuvieron puntuaciones medias de "Toma de perspectiva" (61.33, nivel alto [91.0%]), "Atención por compasión" (41.16, nivel alto [82.8%]) y "Capacidad de Ponerse en el Lugar del Paciente" (12.38, nivel medio [61.2%]). No hay diferencias significativas en general ni en las dimensiones según sexo y según edad (p>0.05), pero sí se encuentran diferencias significativas según año de carrera. Conclusión: Los estudiantes de Terapia Física y Rehabilitación de la Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, presentan del 3er, 4to y 5to año respecto al 2do año de carrera (p≤0.05) una orientación empática favorable; específicamente se muestran prestos a la comprensión de los sentimientos de los pacientes y en poner atención a las experiencias personales de los pacientes como medio terapéutico

Objective: To determine the level of empathic orientation in students of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation of Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos (UNMSM), 2016. Materials and methods: A quantitative descriptive-observational prospective non-experimental cross-sectional study performed in 134 second- to fifth-year students of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation at Escuela Académico Profesional de Tecnología Médica of UNMSM. The Jefferson Scale of Empathy (JSE) was used. Results: In general, a mean score of 114.60 ± 14.424 was obtained, corresponding to a high level of empathic orientation. This category is qualitatively represented by 85.1%. Regarding the dimensions, mean scores were obtained in "Perspective Taking" (61.33, high level [91.0%]), "Compassionate Care" (41.16, high level [82.8%]) and "Standing in the Patient's Shoes" (12.38, mean level [61.2%]). There were no significant differences neither in general terms nor in gender and age (p>0.05), but there were significant differences in the year of the career. Conclusion: Third, fourth and fifth-year students of Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation of Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos have a favorable empathic orientation compared to second-year students (p≤0.05). They specifically show willingness to understand patients' feelings and pay attention to patients' personal experiences as therapeutic means

Effects of Perspective-taking on HIV-Related Stigma Intervention among Medical College Students / 中国医学伦理学

Objective:To explore the effect of perspective-taking on HIV-related stigma intervention among medical college students.Methods:192 medical college students selected from one medical college were randomly divided into experimental group and control group.Perspective-taking intervention was implemented in the experimental group.HIV-related Stigma Questionnaire was used to measure the level of HIV-related stigma before and after the intervention for two groups.Results:Before intervention,there was no significant difference in the total score of HIV-related stigma between the two groups (P ＞ 0.05);there was significant difference in the total score of HIV-related stigma between the two groups after the intervention (P ＜ 0.05).Empathy had a partial mediating effect on the relationship between perspective-taking and HIV-related stigma,and the ratio of mediation effect to total effect was 0.260.Conclusion:The perspective-taking effectively can reduce the level of HIV-related stigma through the mediation effect of empathy.

O papel preditivo da habilidade empática sobre o perdão interpessoal / The predictive role of empathic skill on interpersonal forgiveness / El papel predictivo de la capacidad empática sobre el perdón interpersonal

Pesquisas associam benefícios pessoais e interpessoais à empatia, uma habilidade de interação social que abrange aspectos cognitivos, afetivos e comportamentais. A empatia envolve a capacidade para adotar a perspectiva afetiva e cognitiva do outro (tomada de perspectiva), para importar-se genuinamente com o bem-estar alheio (sensibilidade afetiva) e para comportar-se de forma congruente, expressando ao interlocutor que o compreende e se preocupa com o mesmo. Estudos recentes têm relacionado esta habilidade ao perdão interpessoal, o qual caracteriza-se pela mudança cognitiva, afetiva e comportamental em relação a um ofensor específico, de uma polaridade negativa a outra positiva. Neste estudo, objetivou-se avaliar o valor preditivo da empatia sobre o perdão, a partir de medidas de autorrelato multidimensionais. O Inventário de Empatia e o Enright Forgiveness Inventory foram aplicados a uma amostra brasileira, composta por 172 participantes. Análises de regressão indicaram que três fatores empáticos - Tomada de Perspectiva, Sensibilidade Afetiva e Altruísmo - foram preditores do perdão, nas dimensões afetiva e comportamental. Os resultados encontrados apoiam a importância da empatia para a ocorrência do perdão e sugerem que investir nesta habilidade seja um meio promissor de promoção do perdão em intervenções para superação da mágoa.

Current research point to personal and interpersonal benefits associated to empathy, a social interaction ability that includes cognitive, affective and behavioral aspects. Empathy involves the ability to adopt the other's affective and cognitive perspective (perspective taking), to care genuinely with the welfare of others (affective sensitivity) and to behave in a consistent manner, expressing understanding and concern to the one whom you are talking to. Recent studies have linked this ability to interpersonal forgiveness, which is characterized by cognitive, affective and behavioral change in relation to a specific offender, from a negative polarity to a positive one. This study aimed to evaluate the predictive power of empathy on forgiveness, using self-report multidimensional instruments. The Empathy Inventory and the Enright Forgiveness Inventory were applied to a Brazilian sample composed of 172 participants. Regression analysis indicated three dimensions of empathy - Perspective Taking, Affective Sensitivity and Altruism - as predictors of affective and behavioral aspects of forgiveness. Results support the important role of empathy for the occurrence of forgiveness and they suggest investing in this ability is a promising means of promoting forgiveness in interventions to overcome grief.

Investigaciones han asociado beneficios personales e interpersonales a empatía, una habilidad de interacción social que incluye aspectos cognitivos, afectivos y conductuales. Empatía implica capacidad de adoptar el punto de vista afectivo y cognitivo de los otros (toma de perspectiva), de preocuparse con el bienestar de los demás (sensibilidad afectiva) y de comportarse de manera consistente, expresando al otro comprensión y que el mismo le importa. Estudios recientes han relacionado esta capacidad al perdón interpersonal, que se caracteriza por el cambio cognitivo, afectivo y de comportamiento en relación con un agresor específico, de una polaridad negativa a otra positiva. Este estudio tuvo como objetivo evaluar el valor predictivo de la empatía sobre el perdón, usando medidas multidimensionales de autorreporte. Se aplicaron el Inventario de Empatía y el Enright Forgiveness Inventory a una muestra brasileña de 172 participantes. Los análisis de regresión indicaron que tres factores de la empatía - Toma de Perspectiva, Sensibilidad Afectiva y Altruismo - fueron predictores del perdón en sus dimensiones afectivas y conductuales. Los resultados apoyan la importancia de la empatía para la ocurrencia del perdón y sugieren que la inversión en esta habilidad es un medio prometedor para promover perdón en intervenciones para superar el dolor.

A tomada de perspectiva social: uma análise qualitativa com estudantes paraibanos / Social perspective taking: a qualitative analysis with students from João Pessoa, capital city of Paraiba State, Brazil

Este estudo teve o objetivo avaliar a capacidade de tomada de perspectiva de estudantes (crianças, adolescentes e adultos) matriculados nas redes pública e privada de ensino da cidade de João Pessoa e verificar a influência das variáveis idade, tipo de escola e gênero sobre esta capacidade. O enfoque teórico adotado foi a teoria de Robert Selman sobre a tomada de perspectiva social. Participaram 149 estudantes com idades variando entre 5 e 26 anos, homens e mulheres; estes responderam um questionário com o dilema de Olga e o dilema dos Sem-terra e dados sócio-demográficos. As respostas sobre os dilemas foram categorizadas conforme os níveis de tomada de perspectiva social propostos por Selman. A análise das freqüências de respostas dadas ao dilema de Olga revelou diferenças significativas em relação à variável idade; não foram encontradas diferenças quanto às variáveis tipo de escola e sexo. Já a análise das freqüências de respostas dadas ao dilema dos sem terra revelou diferenças significativas quanto à idade e o tipo de escola. Os resultados foram discutidos com base na literatura e em estudos empíricos pertinentes.

This study aims to evaluate the perspective taking ability of students (children, teenagers and adults) enrolled in public and private schools in the city of João Pessoa to verify the influence of the age, school type and gender variables on this skill. The theoretical approach adopted is Robert Selman's theory on social perspective taking. 149 students participated, from ages 5 to 26 years old, both male and female. The Olga dilemma, Landless dilemma questionnaire and also a socio-demographic data survey were conducted. The answers on the dilemmas were categorized according to the levels of decision- on social perspective taking proposed by Selman. The analysis of the response frequency to Olga's dilemma revealed significant differences in the age variable; no differences were found in the school type and gender variables. However, the analysis of the frequency responses to the plight of the Landless dilemma revealed significant differences in age and type of school. The results were discussed based on the literature and relevant empirical studies.

Development characteristics of empathy and its relationship with aggression in adolescents / 中国心理卫生杂志

Objective:To explore the development characteristics of empathy in adolescents and the relations with aggression.Methods:With multistage stratified random sampling method,15 738 middle school students were selected from 5 provinces across China.The Buss-Warren Aggression Questionnaire Revised in China (BWAQ-RC) and Interactional Reactivity Index (IRI-C)was used to measure adolescents'aggression and empathy.Results:Girls had higher level of empathy than boys (P <0.001).Age and gender were interacted in predicting empathetic con-cern (P <0.001).Perspective taking was significant negative predictor of indirect aggression,physical aggression, hostile and angry (P <0.001),while empathetic concern was significant positive predictor of indirect aggression, verbal aggression,hostile and angry (P <0.001).Empathy was divided into 4 class used the K-Means clustering a-nalysis,namely,low empathy class,high perspective taking class,high empathetic concern class,high perspective taking and empathetic concern class.In contrast to other classes,individuals in low empathy class were more likely to involve in physical aggression (P <0.05),and individuals in high level of perspective taking and empathetic con-cern class were related with less physical aggression and elevated verbal aggression (P <0.05).Individuals in high empathetic concern class exhibited more indirect aggression,hostile and anger than other subgroups (P <0.05). Conclusion:The unbalance development of the two components of empathy may be closely correlated with different conduction of aggressive behaviors.

The fight against prejudice in older adults: perspective taking effectiveness / Combatiendo el prejuicio en personas mayores: efectividad de la toma de perspectiva

Inhibition of prejudice appears to be more problematic for older adults, hence the need to develop programs to reduce intergroup bias at later stages in life. Perspective taking was analyzed in this study, as one of various cognitive strategies that have been shown to reduce such bias. Data on a sample of 63 Spanish participants with a mean age of 64.1 years was gathered after an intervention based on mental imagery, aimed at reducing explicit prejudice. A wide array of variables was measured (personality traits, values, empathy, and attribution) which may moderate effectiveness in perspective taking. Despite no main effect was found, effects due to interaction of perspective taking found in OLS regression analysis revealed that perspective taking based intervention was effective for some older adults, particularly those who had low scores on agreeableness, empathy, and universalism, and high scores on conformity. The conclusions suggest that perspective taking might be successfully applied to some profiles of older people albeit it is not as strong and transferable strategy as it used to be thought.

La inhibición del prejuicio resulta más problemática en personas mayores, de lo que se deriva la necesidad de desarrollar programas que reduzcan el sesgo intergrupal en los estadios avanzados de la vida. En el presente estudio se analizó la toma de perspectiva como una de las estrategias capaces de reducir este tipo de sesgo. Se recogieron datos en una muestra de 63 participantes españoles con una edad media de 64.1 años, en la que se implementó una intervención basada en imaginería mental, dirigida a la reducción del prejuicio. Asimismo, se midieron diversas variables que podían modular la efectividad de la toma de perspectiva (personalidad, valores, empatía y atribución). Aunque no se encontró ningún efecto principal, los debidos a la interacción de la toma de perspectiva y los moduladores, hallados en el análisis de regresión por mínimos cuadrados ordinarios, revelaron que la intervención basada en la inducción de toma de perspectiva fue efectiva en determinadas personas mayores, particularmente en aquellas que puntuaron bajo en amabilidad, empatía y universalismo, y alto en conformismo. En las conclusiones se sugiere que la toma de perspectiva podría ser aplicada con éxito en determinados perfiles de adultos mayores, aunque no se trata de una estrategia tan potente y transferible como se pensaba.

Análisis preliminar de un protocolo para la evaluación de marcos deícticos / Preliminary Analysis of an Assessment of Deictic Frames Protocol

El propósito de esta investigación es explorar diferencias en la ejecución de tareas deícticas presentadas en el protocolo de McHugh, Barnes-Holmes y Barnes-Holmes (2004a), en relación con variaciones procedimentales que consistieron en exponer a unos participantes al protocolo en un formato de entrevista y a otros en una versión computarizada. La muestra estuvo conformada por 63 participantes entre 9 y 12 años, que fueron pareados por género, edad y nivel educativo, asignados a alguna de las condiciones de aplicación. Se calculó el número de errores cometido por cada participante y grupo de edad en cada marco deíctico y nivel de complejidad relacional, al igual que se estimó el efecto intersujetos mediante un ANOVA de dos vías con edad y versión (cara-a-cara y computador) como variables independientes y tipo de ensayo como variable dependiente. El efecto de la edad fue significativo para el caso de las relaciones invertidas ahora-antes y el de versión para las relaciones simples yo-tú y aquí-allá. En todos los grupos de edad se halló una tendencia a cometer mayor cantidad de errores en la versión computarizada en todos los tipos de ensayo. Los hallazgos se discuten en términos de confiabilidad del procedimiento y validez ecológica de las estrategias no automatizadas para la evaluación de relaciones de estímulo derivadas.

The aim of this study was to explore differences in the performance of deictic tasks presented in the protocol of McHugh, Barnes-Holmes y Barnes-Holmes (2004a) related to procedural variations that consisted of a group of participants exposed to the protocol in a face-to-face interview format, in contrast with another group exposed to the protocol in a computerized version. 63 participants (9 to 12 years old) were paired by gender, age and grade and were assigned to one of the conditions. The number of errors was calculated for each participant and age group in each of the deictic frames and levels of relational complexity and inter-subjects effects were estimated using a two-way ANOVA with age and version (face-to-face and computer) as the independent variables and trial type as the dependent variable. The effect of age was significant for reversed NOW-THEN relations and the effect of version for simple I-YOU and HERE-THERE relations. A trend to produce more errors across all trial types in the computerized version was identified. Findings are discussed in terms of procedural reliability and ecological validity of non automated strategies for the assessment of derived stimulus relations.

Relaciones deíciicas simples, toma de perspectiva y competencia socall / Simple dectic reelations, perspective-taking and social competence

En la Teoría de Marcos Relacionales (Hayes, Barnes-Holmes, & Roche, 2001) se ha planteado que la toma de perspectiva se puede entender como un repertorio de respuestas relacionales deícticas personales, espaciales y temporales, derivadas y aplicables arbitrariamente. Bajo esta óptica, en esta investigación se evaluó el impacto de múltiples ejemplares de reforzamiento por responder relacional en función de claves contextuales en el establecimiento de relaciones deícticas simples y el impacto de este entrenamiento en puntajes de ToM y competencia social. Se implementó un diseño de línea de base múltiple con cuatro participantes (41 a 58 meses), residentes en una fundación de protección y restitución de derechos. Los participantes requirieron entrenamiento en relaciones personales y/o temporales, siendo éstas últimas las más difíciles de aprender a partir de contingencias de reforzamiento. No se identificó una clara relación entre cambios en el repertorio de relaciones deícticas simples y los puntajes en tareas de teoría de la mente y competencia social. Se discuten las implicaciones teóricas y metodológicas de estos hallazgos.

Relational Frame Theory (Hayes, Barnes-Holmes & Roche, 2001) states that perspective-taking can be understood as a repertoire of personal, spatial and temporal deictic relations that are derived and arbitrarily applicable. Under this rubric, this research evaluated the impact of multiple reinforcement exemplars for relational responding according to contextual cues in establishing simple deictic relations and the impact of this training on ToM and social competence scores. A multiple baseline design was implemented with four participants (41 to 58 months old) raised in an institutional setting. Participants required training in personal and/or temporal relations, the latter being harder to learn after being exposed to reinforcement contingencies. No clear relationships among changes in the deictic relations repertoire and ToM and social competence scores were identified. Theoretical and methodological implications of these findings are discussed.

Funcionamiento cognitivo de niños entre 4 y 6 años para la resolución de conflictos interpersonales / Cognitive Functioning of Children Aged 4 to 6 in Interpersonal Conflict Resolution

Esta investigación se centra en el estudio de aspectos del funcionamiento cognitivo de los niños en el dominio del conocimiento social, partiendo del uso de Situaciones de Resolución de Problemas (SRP). Se busca indagar la forma en la cual los niños resuelvan conflictos interpersonales y utilicen la toma de perspectiva como habilidad social. El objetivo general del proyecto es describir los funcionamientos cognitivos de 20 niñas y niños entre cuatro y seis años de edad, para la resolución de conflictos interpersonales, a través de los desempeños obtenidos en una tarea, que simula tres escenarios con situaciones de disputa entre varios personajes. Los resultados demuestran que los niños en edad escolar son capaces de incorporar habilidades sociales desde edades tempranas. Este hecho sustenta la idea de que el desarrollo cognitivo, especialmente en el dominio social, no requiere de un funcionamiento general, sino que presenta variabilidad en periodos cortos de tiempo respecto a la resolución de conflictos interpersonales, e incluso en micro momentos dentro de la misma tarea.

This article focuses on children cognitive Functioning in the social domain of knowledge. It is based on the use of problem solving tasks (PST), using a social skills perspective, to investigate the way in which children solve interpersonal conflicts. The project's overall objective is to describe the cognitive functioning of 20 children between four and sixth years of age, for interpersonal conflicts solving, through the performances obtained in a task that simulates three scenarios where there are disputes between various characters. The results show that school-age children are able to incorporate social skills from an early age and support the idea that cognitive development, especially in the social domain, does not require an overall functioning, but show variability in short periods of time compared to solving interpersonal conflicts, and even within the same task's micro moments.

Evaluación y entrenamiento de la toma de perspectiva: una propuesta analítica funcional / Assessment and training of perspective taking: a functional analytical proposal

La toma de perspectiva difícilmente se desarrolla en los niños antes de los cuatro años de edad, según las investigaciones. Los protocolos usados hasta ahora están basados en situaciones hipotéticas con un alto nivel de abstracción y presentan un número limitado de ejemplos. Por esto, se desarrolló un protocolo para el entrenamiento de toma de perspectiva con base en situaciones reales, múltiples ejemplares y entrega de retroalimentación, manteniendo como constante las relaciones deícticas (YO-TÚ, AQUÍ-ALLÍ y AHORA-ENTONCES, simples e inversas). Bajo un diseño intrasujeto ABA, el protocolo fue efectivo para desarrollar las habilidades de toma de perspectiva en una niña de 3 años y 7 meses de edad, que no las presentaba al momento de la medición inicial. También, se analizan los datos correspondientes al número de sesiones requeridas para cada uno de los marcos y su complejidad a la luz de las investigaciones previas.

According to previous research, perspective-taking can't be easily developed before ages of four years old. Nevertheless, that studies used protocols based on hypothetical situations with a high level of abstraction and, additionally, with a limited number of examples. For this reason, a training protocol for perspective taking, based on real situations was developed. The protocol used a multiple exemplar training, and feedback was provided when was needed. Deictic frames was keeped as a constant (I-YOU, HERE-THERE and NOW-THEN, simple and reversed). An intrasubject ABA design was used in this research. It was obtained that the protocol was effective to develop the abilities of perspective taking in a girl of 3 years and 7 months old. She didn't show the abilities at the first measurement. Also the data of the number of sessions required for training each frame, and their complexity are analyzed under the light of previous research.

The Difference of Neural Activity in Viewing between one's own Emotional Situation and Other's: A Neuroimaging Study about Perspective-Taking

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to investigate the difference of brain activities in viewing a common emotional situation according to perspective-taking. METHODS: Using fMRI, brain activities were measured while performing the task viewing a common emotional situation on either self-perspective or third-person perspective in fourteen healthy men. The relatively activated brain areas on each perspective were investigated, then the relationship between the activated brain regions and the scores of self report about some emotion or empathic ability were explored. RESULTS: The relatively activated brain areas on self-perspective were bilateral paracentral lobule(BA 5), right postcentral gyrus(BA 3), right precentral gyrus(BA 4), left superior temporal gyrus(BA 22), left medial frontal gyrus(BA 6), whereas on third-person perspective right inferior frontal gyrus(BA 47), left caudate body and tail, right superior temporal gyrus(BA 38), right medial frontal gyrus(BA 8) were activated. The relative activity of left superior temporal gyrus on self-perspective was positively correlated with the score of Beck Depression Inventory. CONCLUSION: This study demonstrated that the activated brain region according to perspective-taking were different while viewing a common emotional situation. The depressive feeling would have an influence on the brain activity related to perspective-taking.

Toma de perspectiva y teoría de la mente: aspectos conceptuales y empíricos. Una propuesta complementaria y pragmática

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Abstract: The present work completes an exhaustive revisión of the delimitation of the ability of perspective taking from different points of view. First, perspective taking is defined as the ability of an individual to interpret his/hers emotional and mental states and those of others. Additionally, the term has also been used in medical settings to refer to a tactic intended to stop certain limiting feeling and/or thoughts and instead move feelings and thoughts towards a different direction. At the same time, perspective taking is considered to be at the heart of psychological phenomena such as empathy, that is, the capacity to distinguish what individuals know about themselves in a certain situation (how someone thinks, feels and behaves), self-awareness, interpersonal relations, and various social skills deficits. Second, this ability is conceptualized as a metacognition and it is assumed that the object of study is the theory of the mind. Third, from a developmental perspective, data have shown that children four to five years old, without any psychological disabilities, have the ability to take somebody else's perspective. We reviewed different studies regarding the development of the abilities to express and interpret emotions as precursors to perspective taking. Subsequently, we revised and analyzed the tests or strategies most commonly used to evaluate the ability of perspective taking. Typically, the capacity of an individual to have "a theory of the mind" is determined through tests of false beliefs (such as the classic test of Sally-Anne, the "Smarties" test, "M&M's", and the "Maxi's" Test). Múltiple variations of the tests of false beliefs have been conducted with flashcards or photographs, with characters in oral stories, and through the use of games. Additionally, over the last few years the focus of this body of research has evolved towards the elaboration and validation instruments to measure empathy. Among them are the tests of Empathy Quotient (EQ), the Friendship Questionnaire (FQ), and reading the "mind" in the eyes. It is important to note that these efforts have been focused mostly on individuals with Asperger" s Syndrome or those with higher verbal capabilities. From this latter perspective, we propose empirical evidence that points out to differences in the ability of perspective taking between children with or without autism. This is also shown in the results of previous studies, in which different levels of perspective taking skills were seen between children diagnosed with autism, and those diagnosed with Down Syndrome. It is important to note that this was not true when their verbal skills were not considered as a variable. Likewise, other studies showed that children with autism were not the only ones that failed the theory of the mind tests, but that these tests were also failed by those children with deficits in language and cognitive skills. In this article, we present the results of a study that replicates previous findings which show that typical developing children per-form better in perspective taking tests, followed by children diag-nosed with Down Syndrome, and subsequently by children with autism. It was also noted that the typical developing children showed the highest level of verbal discrimination, followed by the children diagnosed with Down Syndrome, and finally the children diagnosed with autism. One important finding in this study is that all children benefited from the use of contextual prompts, which improved the number of correct responses across all the theory of the mind tests. Additionally, the data varied depending on the type of tests utilized to measure perspective taking skills. In this article, we have also reviewed the different explanations for the origins and development of perspective taking, among which the theory of the mind prevails. The ability to take some-one else's perspective is explained by the development or matura-tion of an innate and specialized module of representations and knowledge, and the formation of conceptual structures of a higher order or meta-representations. Additionally, the ability to ignore perceptual information, salient or not, and to combine simultaneously various contexts are considered prerequisites. In other words, perspective taking speaks to the relationship between psychological constructs such as perception and knowledge. Additionally, it has been hypothesized that shared, joint, or independent attention can be a prerequisite for conversation, and may be the basis of a theory of the mind. In any case, the origins of the development of such a theory have been especially ubiquitous in terms of the executive function and possible relations with cerebral lesions or alterations. However, some authors consider that the process of central coherence may be relatively independent of a theory of the mind. The research of Baron-Cohen et al. has concentrated on identifying existing neurological deficits or organic changes such as bilateral lesions or the role of testosterone on the quality of social interactions and the restrictive social interests of individuals with autism. A similar interest exists in researching the difference in perspective taking and empathy abilities exhibited by members of the opposite sex. Continuing with the neurological foundations of the empathy is of full present time the discoveries regarding «mirror neurons¼ and this recent study with monkeys proposes a specific cerebral area for the formation of the meta-representation. These neurons discharge both when the individual performs an action and when the individual observes another person performing the same action. Finally, even in the light of all the above, other sources point toward the social root of perspective taking skills. Additionally, as indicated by the research of Howlin, Baron-Cohen & Hadwin, it is considered perspective taking includes five different levels: a) simple visual perspective taking, b) the knowl-edge that different individuals can have separately the same thoughts, and c) understanding that "seeing leads to learning," followed by d) the ability to predict actions based on valid beliefs, and finally e) the ability to predict false beliefs. In the light of all of the above, once the radical conclusions of these investigations are viewed critically, the theory of the mind is viewed as a disputable theory of the delimitation of the cause and development of such skills. In addition, to the perspective taking tests themselves, the pre-requisite skills of perspective taking need to be extensively ana-lyzed. In fact, it has been shown that, in order to have an adequate performance on these tests of false beliefs, individuals should be able: 1. to remember and adequately retell their own past desires, thoughts, and past actions; 2. to retain an object in their mind, perceive a second object, and form a relationship between the two, as in a "symbolic function"; 3. to demonstrate the ability to pretend; and 4. to identify the role of age and verbal abilities in children as pre-requisites for an accurate performance on tests of false beliefs, and interpretations of the world. Lastly, we propose a pragmatic and complementary analysis the Theory of Mind based in the functional-contextual analysis of behavior. First, it is considered that perspective taking requires or is closely related to other social behaviors (such as taking turns when talking, initiating verbal responses in interpersonal relations, and the capacity for empathy). In the same manner, theory of mind requires an adequate level of simple and complex conditional discriminations, and these should be analyzed in terms of stimulus control and equivalence relations. In other words, this ability to infer thoughts, feeling, and emotions of others exists if the following prerequisites are present: 1. the processes of the classical conditioning of the emotions, 2. a generalized imitation, and 3. the development of functional classes. Without these experiences or the capability to be affected by them, children (i.e. children with generalized autism) do not develop language adequately. Second, perspective taking implies that an observer's previous experiences and observations with certain events determine his/ her reaction to responses emitted by others in similar circumstances. Finally, from a contextual perspective, it is considered that a speaker's relational frames play a role in this process (for the discriminations I/you, here/there, now/later). These relational properties are abstracted through multiple exemplars or multiple learning opportunities to speak from one's own perspective in relation to others.